from railroads to relativity
The Big Picture
The Birth of Chess – The Silk Road – The Luminaries of Gupta Mathematics – Vedic Architecture and the Chess Board
The second Industrial Revolution accelerated the mutual feedbacks between science and technology, rapidly applying scientific breakthroughs to technological innovation, thus accelerating more scientific breakthroughs. The rapid reshaping of the world, this new relationship of man and machine and the resulting societal upheavals brought new questions about what it means to be human. The budding field of Psychology attempted to answer these questions, and again chess found itself in the center of a new science.
The father of psychoanalysis Sigmnud Freud was an avid player, and used the game as a metaphor for aspects of the analytic process. He wrote,
“H E who hopes to learn the fine art of the game of chess from books will soon discover that only the opening and closing moves of the game admit of exhaustive systematic description, and that the endless variety of the moves which develop from the opening defies description; the gap left in the instructions can only be filled in by the zealous study of games fought out by master-hands. The rules which can be laid down for the practical application of psychoanalysis in treatment are subject to similar limitations.
I intend now to try to collect together for the use of practicing analysts some of the rules for the opening of the treatment. Among them there are some which may seem to be mere details, as indeed they are. Their justification is that they are simply rules of the game, acquiring their importance by their connection with the whole plan of the game. I do well, however, to bring them forward as ‘recommendations’ without claiming any unconditional acceptance for them.”
William James, was a pioneering philosopher and psychologist of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He championed pragmatism, arguing that the value of any idea is rooted in its practical implications. His seminal work “The Principles of Psychology” laid foundational insights into human thought and behavior. In his Dilemma of Determinism, he uses chess as a metaphor to argue in favor of free will:
“Suppose two men before a chessboard—the one a novice, the other an expert player of the game. The expert intends to beat. But he cannot foresee exactly what any one actual move of his adversary may be. He knows, however, all the possible moves of the latter; and he knows in advance how to meet each of them by a move of his own, which leads in the direction of victory. And the victory infallibly arrives, after no matter how devious a course, in the one predestined form of check-mate to the novice’s king.
Let now the novice stand for us finite free agents, and the expert for the infinite mind in which the universe lies. Suppose the latter to be thinking out his universe before he actually creates it. Suppose him to say, I will lead things to a certain end, but I will not now decide on all the steps thereto. At various points, ambiguous possibilities shall be left open, either of which, at a given instant, may become actual. But whichever branch of these bifurcations becomes real, I know what I shall do at the next bifurcation to keep things from drifting away from the final result I intend.”
Alfred Binet, a French Psychologist and inventor of the IQ test, became particularly interested in the phenomenon of blindfolded chess. While there are stories dating back from the time of the Abassid Caliphate of players being able to play blindfolded, the game had grown so much faster and more complex since then. By the time Binet conducted his study in 1894 top players were able to play against over a dozen opponents without the sight of a board. Performing such feats was a tremendous exertion mentally and physically. Blindfolded masters would go into trance like states, not eating or drinking, and generally not making any mistakes for up to 12 hours. Binet wondered how such incredible feats of focus accomplished?
The prevailing theory on memory was that it existed on a strictly visual basis. Binet hypothesized that these exceptional players had photographic memories and thus were constructing mental snapshots of individual board positions and flipping through them game by game; like a photo album. His experiment would importantly prove otherwise. Rather than storing exact images of the board position, masters of blindfold chess instead recall relationships between certain chess specific patterns through which they can reconstruct the game. Much like a musician who hearing a few notes of melody can recognize and play an entire piece of music, the blindfolded chess player stores ideas about the relationships between a number of chess concepts and can thus comprehend the structure of the entire position. Binet waxes, “If one could see what goes on in a chess player’s head, one would find a a stirring world of sensations, images, movements passions and an ever changing panorama of states of consciousness.” The mystique of chess continued to grow in the popular imagination, its metaphoric power becoming increasingly prominent in the art and literature of the time.
The Astapada is based of the Vastu Purusha Mandala
“If one could see what goes on in a chess player’s head, one would find a a stirring world of sensations, images, movements passions and an ever changing panorama of states of consciousness.”
The technological and social transformations did not find their way to Russia until the 20th century and chess had not as yet spread far beyond the intellectual circles of Alexander Pushkin and Leo Tolstoy. But by the 1880s they finally had in Mikhael Tchigorin a master of international regard. In The 1890s Germany finally had atop renaking master in the medical doctor Siegbert Tarrasch. However, it would be Wilhelm Steinitz born in Prague’s Jewish who would come to dominate the world of chess, and usher in the next major evolution in its play. Steinitz’s influence on Chess has been compared to that of Isaac Newton on physics and Sigmund Freud on psychology. Steinitz became the first undisputed world Champion in 1866 defeating Adolf Anderssen in the traditional aggressive, tactical based, attacking style of the Romantic Era of chess. In the Vienna Tournament of 1873 Steinitz introduced a new style of play that emphasized a scientific approach, stategic development of positional advantages as the preconditions to launching attacks. His conceptualization of the game, though controversial and derided as cowardly at the time, laid the foundations of the contemporary game. It also brought him great success over the chess board, he remained world Champion until 1894.
“A good player who loses at chess is genuinely convinced hat he has lost because of a mistake, and he looks for this mistake in the beginning of his game, but forgets that there were also mistakes at ever step in the course of the game, that none of his moves was perfect. The mistake he pays attention to is conspicuous only because his opponent took advantage of it.”
If Steinitz dominated the game with his scientific approach, it took a true man of science to dethrone him. A true rennaisance man, Emanuel Lasker, a professional mathematician, and author of 3 books of philosophy, finally defeated Steinitz in 1894. He reigned as World Champion for 27 years (although he did not defend his title from 1897-1906 for lack of competition nor again from 1911-1920 due to World War I.) His credo was, “Chess, above all, is a fight” and he advised players to, “Never make a purely defensive move..always involve a threat, no matter how slight..a threat usually disconcerted an adversary more than its execution.” Lasker’s psychological edge was perhaps his greatest asset; guided by keen logic and mathematical objectivity He would strive to complicate positions wherever possible, in the name of confusing and confounding his opponents. Perhaps it was a game against Lasker that inspired his friend, Albert Einstein, to say of chess, “Chess grips its exponent, shackling the mind and brain so that the inner freedom and independence of even the strongest character cannot remain unaffected.”
While Lasker dominated chess, unlike many of his contemporaries chess did not dominate him. His conversations generally revolved around everything, but the game; he rarely studied books on theory or memorized long opens, he relied instead on sharp analytic prowess and fighting spirit. This genteel humanism won him almost universal praise; Tarrasch quipped, “Lasker may occasionally lose a game, but never his head.”
The spirit of scienctific advancement not only influenced how the game was played strategically, but in the case of the 1899 Anglo-American matches which were held over cross atlantic telegraph the actual method of play itself. In this groundbreaking event, facilitated by the technological marvel of the time, games took place in parallel, with moves transmitted across the Atlantic. Then Governor of New York, Theodore Roosevelt inaguarated the match with this message ” Gentlemen: As a graduate of one of the universities represented and a warm admirer of all of them, I heartily congratulate the members of the English and American university teams on their first international contest. Chess is, of course, the game of all games, in point of skill, of patience, of strategy and mental darling. May the best team win. Yours very cordially, Theodore Roosevelt.” The Despite the challenges posed by this novel format, such as time zone differences and telegraphic errors, the event underscored the potential of technology to bridge vast distances and coordinate activites between one side of the globe and another.
“Chess is, of course, the game of all games, in point of skill, of patience, of strategy and mental darling.” – Theodore Roosevelt
The Second Industrial Revolution and the Gilded Age
I played Chess with him and would have beaten him sometimes only he always took back his last move, and ran the game out differently
The Second Industrial Revolution, transpiring across the late 19th century, was an era punctuated by rapid technological innovation and industrial growth. As the United States witnessed the construction of railroads, the rise of steel and oil industries, and advancements in communication, the underpinnings of its financial system experienced tumultuous shifts, culminating in significant socio-economic repercussions.
Prominent among these upheavals were the Depression of the 1870s and the Panic of 1893. The former, ignited by the Panic of 1873, was a consequence of post-Civil War speculative bubbles, particularly in railroads, which collapsed under their own weight, leading to widespread bankruptcy and unemployment. The latter, the Panic of 1893, had its roots in over-extension of credit, shaky financing of railroads, and the depletion of gold reserves, further augmented by the failure of key businesses and resultant banking collapses.
Central to the discourse of this period was the contentious debate over monetary policy. Hard money advocates staunchly supported the gold standard, seeing in it a bulwark against inflation and economic instability. In contrast, populists, often representing the agrarian interests and indebted workers, vehemently criticized the inflexibility of the gold standard. They championed bimetallism, arguing that the inclusion of silver alongside gold as a monetary base would inflate the currency, alleviate debt burdens, and spur economic growth. William Jennings Bryan became the emblematic figure of this movement, notably with his “Cross of Gold” speech that decried the gold standard’s metaphorical crucifixion of the working class.
Within this turbulent economic backdrop, the Gilded Age’s magnates, like J.P. Morgan and Cornelius Vanderbilt, amassed vast fortunes. Their wealth was often a product of financial acumen, speculative ventures, and, occasionally, monopolistic practices. Their dominance, juxtaposed against widespread economic hardship, fueled perceptions of them as “robber barons” and intensified societal unrest.
The Second Industrial Revolution, with its technological innovations, not only transformed the economic landscape but also catalyzed profound social changes. The concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a few, coupled with economic downturns, exacerbated class divides. The rising discontent galvanized labor movements, strikes, and demands for better working conditions and wages.
In essence, the interplay of the Second Industrial Revolution’s technological advancements with the era’s financial crises and the ensuing socio-political upheavals reshaped America. As industry and finance evolved, so too did societal perceptions of wealth, labor, and the role of government in mitigating economic disparities, setting the stage for the progressive era and substantial reforms in the 20th century.
he latter half of the 19th century bore witness to a profound intertwining of two seemingly disparate scientific domains: electricity and thermodynamics. As pioneers charted the invisible currents and forces driving machines and lighting cities, they concurrently grappled with the deeper, often counterintuitive, principles governing energy’s flow and transformation such as the second law of thermodynamics, which posits that in any energy transfer or transformation, the potential energy of the final state will always be less than that of the initial state; often interpreted as entropy or disorder in a system, always increases. This principle became a touchstone for inquiries into both energy’s tangible manifestations and its more elusive, theoretical facets.
Ludwig Boltzmann, with his development of statistical mechanics, delved into entropy’s microscopic roots, providing a probabilistic understanding of the second law of. Meanwhile, James Clerk Maxwell, known for his unifying framework of electromagnetism, introduced a thought experiment that further bridged electricity and entropy: Maxwell’s demon. This hypothetical entity, capable of violating the second law, sparked profound debates about the fundamental nature of information and energy.
Adding depth to this discourse, Rudolf Clausius coined the very term “entropy” and formulated the groundbreaking statement: “Energy is conserved; entropy always increases.” This principle of energy conservation became a cornerstone, not just for thermodynamics, but also for understanding electrical systems.
In the realm of practical applications, innovators like Nikola Tesla and Thomas Edison harnessed electricity’s power, with their alternating and direct current systems, respectively. Yet, behind their inventions lay the principles of entropy and energy conservation, subtly dictating the efficiency and potential of electrical systems.
Further deepening our understanding of the atomic and subatomic world, J.J. Thompson’s discovery of the electron suggested that electricity, at its core, was about the movement of these elementary particles. These investigations into the unseen were further bolstered by Hermann von Helmholtz’s emphasis on energy conservation across systems, whether mechanical, thermal, or electrical.
Together, these luminaries crafted a narrative where electricity and entropy danced in tandem, each shaping and informing the other. Their collective endeavors not only elucidated the nature of the unseen but also provided the foundational knowledge for modern physics and technology.
Electricity, Entropy and Evidence of Unseen Things
Germs, Genes and The Origin of Species
Darwin’s theory of natural selection posits that organisms with favorable traits are more likely to reproduce. Mendel’s genetic principles elucidate how these favorable traits are inherited across generations. Thus, while Darwin identified the process of evolutionary change, Mendel provided the genetic mechanism underpinning this process. Pasteur’s work, while more distinct, showcased the micro-level biological interactions, underscoring the intricate balance and interplay in life, which, in turn, influences evolutionary outcomes.
Portfolio
The Age of Reason
Daring ideas are like chessmen moved forward; they may be beaten, but they may start a winning game. —Goethe
“Chess is a game which reflects most honor on human wit.” -Voltaire
If the weather is too cold or rainy, I take shelter in the Café de la Régence, where I entertain myself by watching chess being played. Paris is the world center, and this café is the Paris center, for the finest skill at this game. -Diderot
Pragmatism and Progressivism
John Dewey
John Dewey, a central figure in American pragmatism, revolutionized educational and social philosophy. Advocating for experiential learning, he believed education should be a dynamic interplay between students and their environment. Beyond pedagogy, Dewey emphasized democracy as a way of life, arguing that communal deliberation and shared experiences underpin a vibrant, progressive society.
Stochastic Process and Speculation
Bachelleir
Louis Bachelier, a pioneering figure in financial mathematics, is best known for his 1900 thesis “The Theory of Speculation.” In it, he introduced groundbreaking concepts to model stock market prices, laying the foundation for modern stochastic calculus. His work, ahead of its time, anticipated later discoveries in Brownian motion and has profoundly influenced modern financial economics.
Power Laws
Pareto
Vilfredo Pareto, an Italian economist and sociologist, made significant contributions to economics and the understanding of income distribution. He introduced the Pareto principle or “80-20 rule”, which posits that 80% of effects come from 20% of causes. His work on wealth distribution using Pareto curves has become foundational in economics, sociology, and optimization studies.
Mapping Chaos
Poincare and Lorenz
Henri Poincaré, a polymath, profoundly influenced topology, celestial mechanics, and the theory of dynamical systems. His work laid the groundwork for chaos theory. Edward Lorenz, building on such foundations, became synonymous with the “butterfly effect” in chaos theory, illustrating how small changes in initial conditions can lead to vastly different outcomes in deterministic systems. Together, they reshaped our understanding of complex systems.
Infinite Sets
Cantor
Georg Cantor, a groundbreaking mathematician, is celebrated for his introduction of set theory and his exploration of different sizes of infinities. Challenging traditional notions of infinity, Cantor demonstrated that there are hierarchies of infinite sets, each larger than the previous. His work, initially controversial, laid foundational stones for modern mathematics and profoundly influenced mathematical logic and philosophy.
23 Problems
Hilbert
David Hilbert, a preeminent mathematician of the 20th century, profoundly impacted various areas of mathematics, from number theory to functional analysis. He’s best known for his “Hilbert’s Problems”—a set of 23 unsolved problems that set the research agenda for much of the mathematical community. His foundational work in geometry and formal systems continues to influence contemporary mathematics and logic.